- c. 470–399 BCE
Socrates
Ask what a word means before arguing about it.
Our first method is the question. Every paper starts by defining its terms.
- 384–322 BCE
Aristotle
Phronesis: practical wisdom.
Knowing what is good, and how to bring it about in a particular case. The root of praxis.
- c. 965–1040
Ibn al-Haytham
Test claims by experiment.
Doubt your authorities, including yourself. An early statement of the scientific method.
- 1332–1406
Ibn Khaldun
History as a science of society.
Societies rise and fall on cohesion, trade and taxation. Heavy taxes shrink the revenue they seek.
- 1711–1776
David Hume
Experience before theory.
Humility about what reason alone can prove, and respect for custom that has stood the test of time.
- 1723–1790
Adam Smith
Prosperity grows from exchange.
The division of labour, free trade and rules that apply to everyone make nations rich.
- 1751–1836
James Madison
Power must check power.
A constitution should assume that people in office are not angels, and build accordingly.
- 1902–1994
Karl Popper
A theory earns trust by surviving refutation.
Open societies find and correct their mistakes. Closed ones repeat them.
- A thousand years of seafaring
The navigator's science
Knowledge proven by arriving.
Sun, swell, current and reef, read with care, carried Maldivians across open ocean between the atolls and beyond.